Contrast Womens Position In The Mauritian Sociology Essay

Contrast Womens Position In The Mauritian Sociology Essay There has been a marked change for the better in our overall approach towards the women in Mauritius. Gone are the days when their place was considered to be behind the four walls of the house and their only job was confined to looking after the household affairs. But now they can be seen working shoulder to shoulder with men in every sphere of life. This is undoubtedly a good sign and an indication of their emancipation. It is a known fact that women have played an active role in the economic development of Mauritius since its independence in 1968. In the period 1983-2001 the number of women in full-time employment rose by 81 per cent, from 93,000 to 168,700. Women now represent 51 per cent of the population (608,458 out of a total population of 1,205,665) and 35 per cent of the labour force (186,400 out of 538,500). The share of women in total employment stands at 34 per cent in 2001, up from 23 per cent in 1972. As in most developing countries, womens increased economic importance has been the result of a gradual process of change and not an explicit policy focus. But it is important to stress that since ratifying the UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1984, the Mauritian Government has undertaken a number of significant legal reforms to remove all instances of discrimination against women in Mauritian law. However, while the economic empowerment of women has known significant progress over the decades, there is still a long way to go to raise their standard of living to be at par with that of their male counterparts in the work sector. Women in the Mauritians public and private sector Women still have to strive to be at the same level of their male counterparts in the Mauritian public and private work sector. According to Central Statistical Office, employment in the General Government Sector decreased by about 500 from 74 300 (52,100 males, 22,200 females) in March 2006 to about 73 800 (51 200 males, 22 600 females) in March 2007. Three out of four persons employed in General Government were males. Male workers were predominant in all activity groups, except in Real estate, renting and business services where the female employees accounted for 66 percent of the total employment in the activity. It is to be noted that female employment in Public administration and defence; compulsory social security, Education and Health and social work together accounted for around 96 percent of total female employment in General Government. Employment by Ministry/Department and gender in the General Government, March 2007 Government Services Male Female Total Budgetary Central Government 37 367 16 975 54 342 Office of the President, Judicial and National Assembly 503 245 748 Prime Ministers Office 12 465 1,033 13 498 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade 157 169 326 Ministry of Agro Industry and Fisheries 220 242 462 Ministry of Education, Culture and Human Resources 5765 5811 11576 Ministry of Labour, Industrial Relations and Employment 276 233 509 This table show that the majority of public jobs are being allocated to males rather than their females counterparts, hence, perpetuating the notion of gender inequality in the public work sector. In the private arena too, the scene is more or less the same. Men are the more preferred employees and dominate almost all the spheres of work. Occupation-wise, women are largely confined to low level, low paid jobs, such as machine operators in the EPZ enterprises, clerk, typists and shop assistants. Nearly 60 per cent of women work in the manufacturing sector, of whom 91 per cent in the textile factories. 75,000 employees in the private sector earn less than Rs 5000. 75 per cent of them are women. Only 14 per cent (or one in seven) of women in full-time paid employment in the private sector hold senior management or professional posts. Despite the positive developments that had taken place in Mauritius in this modern era with respect to the increase in womens employment, the promotion of their human rights and their economic independence, this inequality between man and woman in the labour force still insists although we are all now talking about combating gender inequality. For example women are more likely to be employed in jobs like sales girls, clerks, assistant, speakers, whereas on the other hand, jobs with big positions and which require leadership skills such as ministers, managers, engineers, doctors, lawyers are mostly reserved for men. Why is it so? The statistics are showing us that girls are outperforming boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education. How come they are not allocated the big post public or private jobs in the country. This is the question that renders us perplexed. Women continue to aspire for leadership positions in all spheres of governance in both the public and private sector. H owever it has not been easy we can say. Historically, leadership has carried the notion of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women is still common today. Although the number of female leaders has increased, they are often named as an afterthought. This belief that men lead and women follow is so impregnated in the Mauritian mind that the second sex though intelligent are being deprived of many facilities in the workforce. They are not treated fairly as their male counterparts in the work setting. Despite efforts made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, women are still underrepresented in many government and non-government organizations particularly in positions of power and leadership (de la Rey, 2005). From statistics presented by Sadie (2005) on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) parliamentary structures, it is evident that the target of 30% representation by women in political and decision-making structures of member states was not met, except in South Africa and Mozambique. For instance, by 2004 the proportion of women in parliament was 15.4% in Angola, 15.9% in Botswana, 12% in Lesotho, 14.4% in Malawi, 17.14% in Mauritius, 25% in Namibia, and while South Africa and Mozambique had 32.8% and 37.2% respectively. Great strides have been made in the political realm, and womens participation in both the freedom struggles and democratic processes of many African countries including Mauritius have been notable. However, this participation has not always translated into equal representation in political leadership positions. Once elections are conducted, and positions are assigned, one realizes that women are no longer visible, thus, we can notice that in politics, women have been marginalized because men monopolize the decision making structures and are in the majority. Moreover, in education and academic circles too, the picture is more distressing especially if one looks at higher education. One would expect that things would change faster in this environment. After all, as Carleene Dei (2006) observed, universities are traditionally viewed as centres of free thought, change and human development. But leadership in higher education is still a mans world and universities are male dominated institutions. Men also dominated positions at professorial and senior lecturer positions. It is therefore quite evident that men dominate the governance and management levels of higher education institutions. Consequently, men have the decision-making power and authority regarding strategic direction, and allocation of resources. Various factors are at work in limiting womens potential to aspire to positions of leadership both in the public and private sector. Sadie (2005) advanced the argument that women face the patriarchal system where decision making powers are in the hands of males. Despite womens education and entry into the job market, the womans role is typically one of homemaker. The man, on the other hand, is bread winner, head of household and has a right to public life .Confining womens identity to the domestic sphere is one of the barriers to womens entry into politics. The media too has a major part in influencing and perpetuating the second sex as being inferior. For example, they always portray women to be sensitive, calm, caring, looking after children and men as being assertive, courageous, and valiant. Thus, it is not surprising to see men dominating the work arena. The table below shows that all types of public and private jobs are mostly suited to men rather than female. Women dominate in the clerical sector only. Employment by occupational group and sex, 2009 However, despite inequality prevailing, there are some women who were able to transcend cultural barriers, stereotypes and rise to positions of leadership (whether in politics or elsewhere), such as Margaret Thatcher, Sonia Gandhi, Julia Gillard. But these are exceptions and exceptions do not make the rule! In fact, it has been argued that women themselves are often reluctant to run for public positions and this is partly attributed to cultural prohibitions on women speaking in public or going to public places. Political campaigning for instance, requires that one travel extensively, spend nights away from home, go into bars, and for women it means meeting men. Women who struggle for public office have to consider the risk of being labelled loose or unfit as mothers and wives, and being socially stigmatized. Such considerations make many women shy away from politics, and positions that put them in the public eye. Furthermore, in other public and private arenas also, womens access to leadership positions has been hindered by discrimination and stereotyping. Women are more or less persecuted for seeking an executive position. This is largely due to societys attitude toward appropriate male and female roles. Women have to face the sticky floor, preventing them to get access to the high position jobs. In fact, the recruitment processing itself is discriminating women. For instance, in the private sector, the manager will choose a married man employer rather than a married woman in the recruitment process. Since they all have the prejudices that women can fall pregnant at anytime, they will have to take maternity leaves, thus, hampering the productivity of the company during their absences. Therefore, with a male worker, there is no such problem. Hence, men are more favoured and are more likely to be recruited. Comparison of salary in the public v/s private sector If the public service, decrying those at the top of the wage scale are worse off compared to the private sector, in the private sector, it insists that the preservation of jobs is more important than salary increases that might putting the company at risk. In the private sector, employees whether men or women are better paid than in the public sphere. The table below shows this evidence. Its source is from MEF. Types of jobs Public sector Private sector Receptionist / Telephonist Between Rs 8400 and Rs 16000 Between Rs 5,000 and Rs 28,210 Human Resource Officer Between Rs 17,200 and Rs 26,400 Between Rs 15,358 and Rs 41,420 Secretary Between Rs 9600 and Rs 21400 Between Rs 10,167 and Rs 29,434 Human resource manager Between Rs31,250 and Rs 45,000 Between Rs 35,000 and Rs 94,600 Civil Engineering Between Rs 22,000 and Rs 45,000 Between Rs 20,375 and Rs 65,300 General worker Between Rs 6,425 and Rs 10,200 Between Rs 6,205 and Rs 18,300 Conclusion and Recommendation Women continue to enter the workplace in increasing numbers in all developed countries. Several factors account for this trend. An increasing number of economies have become industrialized, the service sector has grown opening up positions for women, and growth in public and not-for profit sectors have created new opportunities for women. However, the pace of advancement for women in the top position jobs continues to be slow and uneven in different countries and cultures. Women still cannot crack the marble ceiling and are thus at a disadvantage despite they possess lots of skills and aptitudes. Educational institutions can help by teaching the equality of the sexes through lessons. Further, the family too should not be biased and give the same kind of upbringing to the sons and daughters. Boys should be made to help in the domestic chores as much as the girls. The mass media should also project the picture of the women as an equal with the same desires, ambitions and intelligence. True liberation of women is possible only when our overall attitude is changed!

Native American Mistreatment

They  traveled  across  what  scientists  and  historians  call  the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"land  bridge†Ã‚  that  spanned  the  distance between  modern  day  Russia  and  Alaska. The  natives  separated  into  many  different  factions  and fanned  all  over  North  America;  some  tribes  became  nomadic  roaming  wherever  their  food  supply went  while  other  Ã‚  natives  learned  to  grow  and  sew  crops.The  Native  Americans  lived  in  mostly peaceful  societies  until  1492,  when  Columbus  landed  on  what  is  now  the  Bahamas2  The  natives greeted  Columbus  and  his  crew  with  open  arms  only  to  be  met  with  harsh  treatment,  slavery,  rape, and  death. When  the  Europeans  arrived,  they  forever  changed  the  lives  of  Native  American’s  by trying  to  transform   religion  and  law  that  violated  Native  American  customs. When  Columbus,  a  Roman  Catholic,  landed  in  the  Bahamas  in  1492,  he  was  received amicably  by  the  friendly  Arawak  tribe.The  Arakwak  people  were  a  largely  peaceful  society;  they had  settled  in  the  Caribbean  hundreds  of  years  before  European  explorers  found  them. In Columbus’  private  journal  he  wrote  of  the  Arawak  Ã¢â‚¬Å"  they  willingly  traded  everything  they owned†¦ they  do  not  bear  arms,  and  do  not  know  them,  for  I  showed  them  a  sword,  they  took

Bulgaria Economy Essay

Alongside the north coast of Black Sea, the Bulgarian state was first founded in 635 A. D with the Slav and Bulgar peoples. Between the year 893 and 927 the first Bulgarian Kingdom was established which is known as the â€Å"Golden Age† in the history of Bulgaria. In the early 20th century social and political disorders blemished Bulgaria and forced the country to participate in the First Balkan War in 1912 and then in the Second Balkan War in 1913. Bulgaria also took a part in the World Wars first by associated with the Central Powers and then with the Axis Powers. In the beginning of the Second World War, the country united with the Germany, but towards the end of the war it changed its position for fighting with the German troops that resulted in the killing of 30,000 Bulgarian soldiers. Communism came forward and materialized dominantly in the political environment of the country in 1944 when the Soviet soldiers entered into the territory of Bulgaria and the Axis power crushed in the Second World War. Gradually the country turned as the protectorate of the Soviet Union during the era of Cold War. With dethrone of Todor Zhivkov, thethen head of the Communist Party of Bulgaria, democratic change took place in the country. In 1991 the first egalitarian parliamentary elections occurred in Bulgaria. In 1992 the country experienced its first ever direct presidential elections. Bulgaria, which comes out through the agonizing struggle and trouble of communism, faced various social disorder and economic turmoil that ultimately ended with the huge economic and financial crisis in the period of the late 1996 and the early 1997. However, the economy of Bulgaria came back to the stabilizing path with a series of reforming initiatives taken by Ivan Kostov, the former prime minister of the country. (Background Note: Bulgaria, November 27, 2009). Overtime, Bulgaria has gradually emerged as a market-driven economy from an old command economy. In 1996, the country experienced major economic crises in the form of banking system disorder, depreciation of currency, reduction of production as well as foreign trade. Dwindling foreign exchange reserves and significant increase in rates of interest further aggravated both the burden of domestic debt and growth of the country. Within a period of one year gross domestic product dropped by almost 11% in 1996 while it experienced a 2% increase in 1995. In the late 1996 privatization model was accepted, but the privatization of the public sector industries declined. During this period the IMF disbursed almost $580 loan to Bulgaria. But the country failed to augment its structural reform process. This lack of progress of Bulgaria insisted the IMF to postpone the loan sanctioned to the country. For avoiding needless spending and huge inflationary pressure, the IMF proposed to form a currency board to renovate the confidence of the country. In this case Mr. Ivan Kostov (UDF), the former Prime Minister of Bulgaria, who got the crown in 1997, played the leading role to launch the ambitious reform programs. With such initiatives the currency board was set up on July 1, 1997 to bring back the stability and growth in the economy of Bulgaria. The outcome of the formation of the currency board was seen by the fall in inflation rate. While the rate of inflation was a three digit number in 1997, it was slashed to 1% in 1998. A decrease in the inflation rate, a decrease in interest rate and an increase in the foreign investment were followed by the formation of the currency board. The government of Bulgaria also assured to sell off some of the assets of the country. Though the country faced a 7. 4% drop in its GDP in 1997, it expected the GDP to bounce back in 1998 to an estimated level of 2%. The government of Bulgaria also took some other initiatives like achieving the success of land reform policy, the process of privatization and the reform of the banking system, etc. as its other prime objectives. The government of Bulgaria has taken the steps to provide a strong and sustainable growth in the GDP of the country by learning the lessons from the fall of GDP in the years 1996 and 1997. For reducing the level of unemployment and sustaining the growth of production of the economy, Bulgaria has taken all the required steps from time to time. The governments have taken the necessary measurements to reduce the level of both the individual and the corporate taxes, curb the corruption and draw the flow of foreign investment into the country. The government of Bulgaria has also taken the steps to restructure the foreign debt policy of the country, restore and stimulate the stock market and aggravate the process of privatization of the some of the major state monopolies. All such steps of the country have led the European Commission to declare that Bulgaria is â€Å"Functioning Market Economy† in October 2002 as its main economic policy. (Background Note: Bulgaria, November 27, 2009). All the successive governments have maintained such reform and ultimately Bulgaria has taken the membership of the European Union in 2007. A World Bank report suggests that Bulgaria has been able to draw the maximum levels of flow of foreign direct investment among all the nations of Eastern Europe as a percentage of GDP in 2006. The government of Bulgaria has brought down the rate of corporate tax to 10% in 2007 to magnetize the additional flow of foreign capital in the country. Such a corporate tax rate has been reported as the lowest rate in the whole Europe. The cost of domestic labor has also dropped through the legislation of the flat personal income tax level of 10% in January 1, 2008. To enhance the stability in local economic functioning, the Bulgarian parliament has taken the policy of fiscal decentralization for the municipalities so as to provide them the power of collection and supervision of some taxes. Such a step was taken by responding the increasing demand for independence of financial procedures of the local governments of the country. The achievement of the country towards the restructure of its fiscal policies and tax reforms, however, somewhat wiped out by the recent global financial crisis and economic turmoil that started from the middle of 2007. Such a worldwide global dwindling phase has forced the Bulgarian economy to be trapped by the vicious circle of recession at the end of 2008 after experiencing a prolonged 10 years steady growth. The effect has been seen in the mounting household debt and the increased rate of unemployment in the country. In this situation the government has responded by taking an â€Å"anti-crisis† strategy for strengthening fiscal recovery and promoting economic stability. To increase the power over the funds of the European Union, the government has also given its commitment. Such governmental steps are also expected to fight the crime and the corruption in the Bulgarian economy in an organized way. (Economy in Bulgaria, n. d. ). Let us look at some of the basic statistics which are very helpful to assess the present economic structure of the Bulgarian Economy and its overall development. It is a known fact in the history of mankind that the identification of the goals of economic development has not been properly done by human. (Todaro and Stephen, 2009, p 16) The Bulgarian economy has been designated as an economy with an upper and middle income nation by the World Bank. Though in the recent past the country has exhibited a steady trend in its growth, it is one of the least developed nations of Europe. The economy of Bulgaria heavily dependent on the industrial sector, but in recent past the service sector has also contributed to the growth of the country’s GDP. Petroleum, copper, gold, coal, beverages and tobacco, fruits, electronic tools and items, vehicle machineries, nuclear fuel, iron, construction items, sunflowers, wine, barley, etc. , are some of the major products of the country. From 1996 to 2008, over a period of 12 years, the country has able to maintain a growth of 6% and more. The huge inflow of foreign direct investment in the country has helped it to maintain such a significant rate of growth. However, the latest global recession has adversely affected the country on its export sector as well as on its capital inflow. This in turn has affected the growth of the country. The GDP of the country has fall to 5% in 2009. In terms of purchasing power parity, the GDP of Bulgaria has dropped to $90. 54 billion in 2009 from the level of $95. 1 billion of 2008. In terms of absorption of the work force of the country, the agriculture sector contributes 7. 5%, whereas industry contributes 27. 6% and service sector contributes 64. 9%. According to the estimation of 2009, the total work force of the country is 2. 63 million. The share of unemployed population in 2009 stands almost 9. 1% in the total working population. The corrupted system of public administration, feeble judiciary system and the increasing criminal activities has led almost 14. 1% of the population of Bulgaria to live their lives below the poverty line and under a greater hardship. (Bulgaria Economy, n. d. ). The estimated per capita GDP of the country has dropped to $12,600 in 2009 from the level of $13,100 in 2008. The estimated percentage of GDP of the country in agriculture, industry and services sector are 7. 5%, 27. 6% and 64. 9% successively. The estimated level of unemployment of Bulgaria has risen to 9. 1% in 2009 in comparison with 6. 3% in the previous year 2008. Total estimated gross investment in 2009 of the country is 28. 6% of GDP. The estimated amount of public debt has risen to 21. 4% of GDP in 2009 from the level of 14. 1% in 2008. The growth rate of industrial production in 2009 has been estimated as negative and stands at -14% of GDP. The estimated foreign exchange reserve and gold has also dropped to $16. 49 billion on December 31, 2009 from the level of $17. 93 billion on December 31, 2008. In response to the unfavorable effect of the global financial turmoil on the economy of Bulgaria, the government has taken many steps to strengthen the economy. Such governmental initiatives are supported by various statistics. The estimated public debt of Bulgaria has dropped to 21. 4% of GDP in 2009 as compared to the 14. 1% of the year ago. Estimated rate of inflation in terms of consumer prices has also decreased to 2. 7% in 2009 from that of 12. 3% in 2008. The prime lending rate of the central bank of Bulgaria has been increased to 10. 86% in December 31, 2008 from that of 10% in December 31, 2007. The stock of domestic credit has increased to $32. 04 billion in December 31 which was $17. 03 billion in December 31, 2007. (Bulgaria Economy 2010, February 8, 2010). According to the latest available data as published by Nation Master, the external debt of Bulgaria has increased to $3488 million which is a very high amount. In terms of Gini index, which is the measure of degree of inequality in the distribution of family income, the country has been ranked as 103rd out of 133 nations in case of its equal distribution of family income. (Economy, 2010). For analyzing the socio-economic structure and development issues of Bulgaria we should study the basic education system, healthcare system, urbanization process and migration and the strategies of the country to develop the economy in the presence of corruption. The minority communities of Bulgaria are protected by many international instruments according to the 1991 new Bulgarian constitution. Such a constitutional structure has established the superiority of the international law over the national law of Bulgaria. Such international norms and regulations have made the basic principles of the legislation of the country through which the government of Bulgaria is able to control and adjust the common rights of its citizens who vary across the languages of their respective communities, religions and cultures. However, there are many problems in the country associated with the minorities. Such problems are not only related with the cultural or religious variations but also basically with the economic and social values of the citizens. (Karasimeonov, n. d. ). The government of Bulgaria is very concerned to respect its citizen’s human right. In past, there were, however, some problems in many areas. The citizens who were the member of minority population of the country were suspected by the law enactment officials. The prisoners were also mistreated and misbehaved. The degree of arbitrary arrest, police violence and exploitation were very common in the country. The prevalence of corruption and other problems associated with the system led the judicial structure of the nation to suffer greatly. The press was also restricted to freely expose the views. In Bulgaria there were also many barriers on some of the religious groups of the nation. They were strictly deterred to present their cultural and religious outlooks. Communal harassment was very common in the country. Social discrimination between the men and women was very high and the violence against the women was vastly prevalent in the society. The increasing problem of child labor in the country have also setback the economy of Bulgaria. Throughout the ruling of all the political organizations in Bulgaria, corruption and crime has remained the basic concerning factors of all the governments. To fight against the corruption and to increase the awareness of its citizens, the government of Bulgaria has formed the inter-ministerial anticorruption commission in 2002. To combat against corruption though the Bulgarian government has taken various methods, the European Union, however, has argued that the country is still facing many problems associated with the presence of corruption in the economy. The Union has recommended for the requirement of rehabilitated efforts to tackle such advanced and sophisticated corruption. (Corruption and Anti-corruption Policy in Bulgaria, 2002, pp 102-104; Bulgaria, February 28, 2005). The education system of Bulgaria is basically national in nature, but also affected significantly by foreign controls. In the 19th century the educational system of the country was highly motivated and influenced by the impact of Soviet Russia. The influence of Western Europe and the American educational culture are also significant on the overall educational environment of Bulgaria. However, to bring the country’s educational system in the line of Western European process of education the educational system of Bulgaria has been reformed. With such initiative to reform the educational system of the economy, Bulgaria has supported the agreement with the European Union. (Bulgaria- Educational System- overview, 2010). Development is the concept of freedom of human. The Human development index consists of the status of health, education and the income (Todaro and Stephen, 2009, p 19-21). The Human Development Index of Bulgaria is . 808 which has given it the rank of 55 among the 178 nations. (Economy 2010). In the early 20th century the proportion of residents who lived in the cities with their counterparts who lived in the villages were merely 20 percent. In 1945 the proportion has increased to almost 24 percent and at the end of 1990 it has been seen that more than 6 million people resided in the cities while less than 3 million population of Bulgaria resided in the villages. Such a change in demographic movement is well enough to argue that Bulgaria has experienced the pace of urbanization with the passage of time. Since almost 66% of Bulgarian migrants has relocated in the same states of the country, so there has not been seen any sharp decline in the regional population ratio. The demographers, however, are very concerned over the decline of the population of the villages. They are very concerned over the skewed distribution of population towards the cities. The 1990 democratization activities have raised many debates over the issue of agricultural privatization program of the government. (Curtis,1992). References: 1) Todaro, P, M and S, C, Stephen (2009), â€Å"Economic Development†, Pearson Education Limited, 10th Edition, England. 2) â€Å"Background Note: Bulgaria† (November 27, 2009), Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, U. S. Department of State. Available at: http://www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3236. htm Access On: May 18, 2010 3) â€Å"Economy in Bulgaria† (n. d. ), World66 Available at: http://www. world66. com/europe/bulgaria/economy Access On: May 18, 2010 4) â€Å"Bulgaria Economy† (n. d. ), EconomyWatch Available at: http://www. economywatch. com/world_economy/bulgaria/ Access On: May 19, 2010 5) â€Å"Economy† (2010), Bulgaria, Europe, NationMaster. com Available at: http://www. nationmaster. com/country/bu-bulgaria/eco-economy Access On: May 19, 2010 6) â€Å"Bulgaria Economy 2010† (February 8, 2010), Countries of the World. Available at: http://www. theodora. com/wfbcurrent/bulgaria/bulgaria_economy. html Access On: May 19, 2010 7) Karasimeonov, G, (n. d. ), â€Å" The constitutional Rights of Minorities in Bulgaria† Available at: http://www. cecl. gr/RigasNetwork/databank/REPORTS/r9/BU_9_Konstantinov. html Access On: May 20, 2010 8) â€Å"Corruption and Anti-corruption Policy in Bulgaria† (2002), Open Society Institute Available at: http://info. worldbank. org/etools/antic/docs/Resources/Country%20Profiles/Bulgaria/OpenSocietyInstitute_CorruptionBulgaria. pdf Access On: May 20, 2010 9) â€Å"Bulgaria† (February 28, 2005), Bureau of Democr

Behavioral Science in the Armed Forces

Military sociology is the sociological study of the military. It examines issues such as military recruiting, race and gender representation in the military, combat, military families, military social organization, war and peace, and the military as welfare. Military sociology is a relatively minor subfield within the field of sociology. There are few universities that offer courses on military sociology, and only a handful of academic professionals that conduct research and/or write about military sociology. In recent years, most of the studies that can be classified as military sociology have been done by private research institutes or in military agencies, such as the Rand Corporation, the Brookings Institute, the Human Resources Research Organization, the Army Research Institute, and the Office of the Secretary of Defense. Furthermore, the research teams that conduct these studies are generally interdisciplinary, with researchers from sociology, psychology, political science, economics, and business. This by no means implies that military sociology is a small field. The military is the largest single government agency in the U.S. and the issues addressed surrounding it can have important ramifications for both military policy and the development of sociology as a discipline. The Basis of Service One of the most significant issues in military sociology in the U.S. post-World War II is the shift from drafting to voluntary service. This was a huge change and one whose impact at the time was unknown. Sociologists were and still are interested in how this change affected society, who the individuals were who entered the military voluntarily and why, and whether this change affected the representativeness of the military (for example, are there more uneducated minorities who enter voluntarily than were selected in the draft)? Social Representation and Access Social representation refers to the degree to which the military represents the population from which it has been drawn. Sociologists are interested in who is being represented, why the misrepresentations exist, and how representativeness has changed throughout history. For example, in the Vietnam War era, some civil rights leaders alleged that African Americans were overrepresented in the armed forces and therefore accounted for an unfair amount of casualties. Gender representation also developed as a major concern during the women’s rights movement, generating major policy changes concerning the participation of women in the military. In more recent years, when President Bill Clinton overturned the military ban on gays and lesbians, sexual orientation became the focus of major military policy debate for the first time. This topic has come into the spotlight once again after President Barack Obama repealed the Don’t ask, don’t tell policy so that gays and lesbia ns can now serve openly in the military. Sociology of Combat The study of the sociology of combat deals with the social processes involved in combat units. For example, researchers often study unit cohesion and morale, leader-troop relations, and motivation for combat. Family Issues The proportion of military personnel who are married has increased greatly over the past fifty years, which means there are also more families and family concerns represented in the military. Sociologists are interested in looking at family policy issues, such as the role and rights of military spouses and the issue of child-care when single-parent military members are deployed. Sociologists are also interested in military benefits related to families, like housing improvements, medical insurance, overseas schools, and child care, and how they impact both the families and the larger society. The Military as Welfare Some people argue that one of the military’s roles is to provide the opportunity for occupational and educational advancement to the less advantaged in society. Sociologists are interested in looking at this role of the military, who takes advantage of the opportunities, and whether the training and experience of the military offer any advantages compared to civilian experiences. Social Organization The organization of the military has changed in many ways over the past several decades – from the draft to voluntary enlistment, from combat-intensive jobs to technical and support jobs, and from leadership to rational management. Some people argue that the military is changing from an institution legitimized by normative values to an occupation legitimized by a market orientation. Sociologists are interested in studying these organizational changes and how they impact both those in the military and the rest of society. War and Peace For some, the military is immediately associated with war, and sociologists are certainly interested in examining different aspects of war. For example, what are the consequences of war for societal change? What are the sociological impacts of war, both at home and abroad? How does war lead to policy changes and shape the peace of a nation?